82:T54e,Hösten 1795 utkom i Königsberg (som i dag heter Kaliningrad och är en rysk stad) en liten skrift författad av stadens mest berömde son, filosofen Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). Skriften hette "Zum ewigen Frieden", Om den eviga freden. Den omedelbara anledningen var freden i Basel i mars samma år mellan Preussen och det revolutionära Frankrike, en strategisk uppgörelse av det slag som Kant omtalade som endast ett uppskjutande av fientligheterna, till skillnad från ett fredsslut som innebär ett slut på alla fientligheter. "Om den eviga freden" är emellertid ingen tillfällighetsskrift, utan en av Kants viktigaste politiska skrifter. Grundtanken är rättens fredsskapande funktion. Såsom rätten har skapat en ordnad samlevnad inom staterna, föreställer sig Kant möjligheten av en ny form av kosmopolitisk rätt och en federation av alla jordens folk. Förnuftet, säger Kant, ”fördömer kriget helt och hållet och framhåller freden som en omedelbar plikt”. Det finns en moralisk måttstock för mänsklighetens moraliska framåtskridande, och det är i vilken grad den lyckas övervinna fientligheterna mellan stater och etablerar en bindande global rättsordning.

"Om den eviga freden" är översatt och försedd med en inledande essä om Kant och fredstankens historia av Alf W. Johansson, professor emeritus i historia.83:T93b,"Om pedagogik" är inte nedtecknad av Kant själv utan baserad på föreläsningsanteckningar. Skriften utkom 1803, ett år före Kants död. Uppfostran är för Kant uppfostran till myndighet, till en frihet som utövas med hänsyn till andras lika frihet. Målet är att lära barnet att tänka, det ska upplysas och inte drillas – och om undervisningen ska utveckla förnuftet måste den vara sokratisk.

"Genom uppfostran måste människan för det första disciplineras. Att disciplinera innebär att försöka förhindra att det djuriska skadar mänskligheten, hos såväl den enskilda som den samhälleliga människan. Disciplin är alltså blott ett tämjande av vildheten.

För det andra måste människan kultiveras. Kultur innefattar råd och undervisning. Den går ut på att göra människan skicklig. Skicklighet är besittning av en förmåga som räcker till för alla möjliga syften. Den anger alltså inte alls några syften, utan överlåter detta att bestämmas alltefter omständigheterna. Vissa skickligheter är av godo i alla sammanhang, till exempel att läsa och skriva; andra bara för vissa syften, till exempel musiken, för att bli omtyckt. Genom syftenas mångfald blir skickligheten på sätt och vis oändlig.

För det tredje måste man se till att människan också blir klok, passar in i det mänskliga samhället, att hon blir omtyckt och får inflytande. Till detta hör en viss form av kultur som man kallar civilisering. För denna krävs belevenhet, artighet och en viss klokhet, som gör att man förmår använda alla människor för sina syften. Civiliseringen följer varje tidsålders föränderliga smak. Så var man ännu för några få årtionden sedan förtjust i ceremonier i sällskapslivet.

För det fjärde måste man ge akt på moraliseringen. Människan skall inte bara vara skickad för allehanda syften, utan också få ett sådant sinnelag att hon enbart väljer idel goda syften. Goda syften är de som med nödvändighet godtas av alla, och som också samtidigt kan vara alla människors syfte."

Till boken har Lars Løvlie skrivit ett förord som placerar texten i sitt historiska sammanhang och relaterar den till Kants moralfilosofi. Løvlie är professor i pedagogisk filosofi vid Universitetet i Oslo och adjungerad professor vid Örebro universitet.84:T8c7,Kritik av det rena förnuftet är Kants mest betydande arbete. Det utgör grunden i Kants kritiska projekt och är kanske det mest inflytelserika filosofiska verket i modern tid. Endast en mindre del av verket har tidigare varit översatt till svenska. Den nu föreliggande översättningen bygger på den andra upplaga som Kant själv gav ut 1787, men de passager i den första upplagan (utkom 1781) som ändrats har här också översatts (och placerats i noter eller i särskilda textavsnitt). Kant genomför i detta verk inte något mindre än en kopernikanska vändning i filosofin. Han placerar människan och hennes kunskapsförmågor i centrum på ett sätt som har gjort hans verk till en vattendelare i filosofins historia. Den motsättning mellan realism och idealism som här etableras har alltsedan dess varit en central filosofisk frågeställning. Kants revolutionerande synsätt, den transcendentala idealismen, bygger på en undersökning av förståndets räckvidd och gränser. För att övervinna motsättningen mellan traditionens dogmatiska rationalism och en ny tids skeptiska empirism ställer Kant frågan om betingelserna för möjlig erfarenhet: hur kan någonting överhuvudtaget vara givet som föremål för kunskap? Svaret blir att detta kräver en av erfarenheten oberoende syntes mellan sinnlighet och förstånd: tankar utan innehåll är tomma, åskådningar utan begrepp är blinda. Detta sätter visserligen en principiell gräns för vårt vetande, men förklarar samtidigt hur syntetiska omdömen a priori är möjliga inom matematik och naturvetenskap: de formulerar betingelserna för möjlig erfarenhet. I verkets senare del, den transcendentala dialektiken, öppnas ett vidare perspektiv, som pekar fram mot Kants senare kritiska verk. När förnuftet överskrider den möjliga erfarenhetens gränser invecklar det sig i olösliga motsägelser; dess idéer, som de om viljans frihet och Guds existens, kan för människan endast ha ett praktiskt bruk. Därmed förenar Kant upplysningens tilltro till förnuftet med en senare tids mer anspråkslösa anda. Vi har inte tillgång till en allvetande Guds perspektiv, samtidigt som människan ofrånkomligen sträcker sig mot det som ligger bortom horisonten85:T804,Verket presenteras här i svensk nyöversättning - för första gången sedan 1796!

Observationer om känslan av det sköna och sublima (1764) är ett av Kants tidigare verk, utgivet före hans mer bekanta och välkända titlar. Den är också i någon mening mer litterär än filosofisk och förmodligen hans kanske mest lättillgängliga text. Den är enkelt skriven och han uppvisar här en varmare och känslosammare sida och alls inte den av någon torr stofil.

Essän är indelad i fyra huvudstycken. I det första avgränsar han sig själv och presenterar de två koncepten som han utreder; det sköna och sublima, vars olika aspekter han belyser. I det andra förklarar han hur dessa egenskaper uppvisas av män i allmänhet. I det tredje och fjärde undersöker han dem hos de två könen och i det fjärde hos olika nationer. Det är helt enkelt en studie i estetik - ett område man kanske inte omedelbart förknippar med Kant (han erbjöds dock en professur i lyrik i Berlin 1796 - något han avböjde då han ville vara kvar i Königsberg. Först år 1770, 46 år gammal, blev han professor i logik och metafysik).

Kant menar att det sköna väcker glädje och det sublima en viss skräck eller stilla beundran som i sin tur indelas i tre former: det skräckinjagande, det ädla och det magnifika. Han skriver bland annat: "Natten är sublim och dagen är skön." Kant återvänder ofta till denna indelning och gör intressanta iakttagelser och jämförelser. I essäns två senare huvudstycken far han fram med uttalanden som är otidsenliga, men det var normer för den rådande tiden.

Här ett utsnitt ur essän:"Man får aldrig glömma bort att man inte bör göra alltför stora anspråk på livets lycka och människans fullkomlighet, oavsett i vilken form det sker, för den som alltid förväntar sig något genomsnittligt har fördelen att resultatet sällan kommer att svika hans förhoppningar, även om oväntade fullkomligheter ibland också kommer att överraska honom."86:T571,The second of Kant's three critiques, "Critique of Practical Reason" forms the center of Kantian philosophy; published in 1788, it is bookended by his "Critique of Pure Reason" and "Critique of Judgement." With this work Kant establishes his role as a vindicator of the truth of Christianity; he approaches his proof by presenting positive affirmation of the immortality of the soul and the existence of God. The philosopher offers an argument concerning the "summum bonum" of life: people should not simply search after happiness, but follow the moral law and seek to become worthy of the happiness that God can bestow.
This "Critique" comprises three sections: the Analytic, the Dialectic, and the Doctrine of Method. The Analytic defines the ultimate moral principle, the categorical imperative, and argues that to obey it is to exercise a freedom. The Dialectic make the assumption that immortality and God exist, arguing that pure practical reason falls into error when it expects perfection in this world; we should anticipate finding perfection in the next world, with God's help. The final section, the Doctrine of Method, offers suggestions in educating people in the use of pure practical reason.
A seminal text in the history of moral philosophy, this volume offers the most complete statement of Kant's theory of free will and a full development of his practical metaphysics.87:T5c3,Kant behandlar här förnuftet i dess praktiska bruk, dvs. i dess bestämmande av viljan och påverkan på handlingen. I centrum står Kants berömda kategoriska imperativet: "Handla så att maximen för din vilja alltid samtidigt kan gälla som princip för en allmän lag." Grundtanken är att det moraliska värdet hos mina handlingar inte har att göra med känslor, böjelser eller nyttoöverväganden, utan beror på de maximer jag lägger till grund för dem. Endast om en maxim är universaliserbar om jag kan vilja att den upphöjs till en allmän norm är handlingen moraliskt riktig. På denna grund ger Kant också en ny behandling av de metafysiska idéer, särskilt idén om den fria viljan, som i Kritik av det rena förnuftet förblev problematiska. Medan människan som objekt oundvikligen är underställd kedjor av orsaker och verkningar måste man enligt Kant anta att människan i sig, som moraliskt handlande person, är fri att handla så som hennes förnuft bjuder. Kritik av det praktiska förnuftet (1788) är Kants andra kritiska verk. Det hör till moralfilosofins klassiska verk och har utövat stort inflytande också på förespråkare för andra etiska perspektiv. Samtidigt utgör Kants morallära, såsom mönsterbildande för all pliktetik, en ofrånkomlig utmaning för dagens utilitaristiska synsätt, liksom för alla försök att naturalisera etiken. På så sätt förblir Kant en oumbärlig röst i dagens moralfilosofiska diskussion.88:T5e4,”Upplysning är människans utträde ur sin självförvållade omyndighet. Omyndighet är oförmågan att göra bruk av sitt förstånd utan någon annans ledning. Självförvållad är denna omyndighet om orsaken till densamma inte ligger i brist på förstånd, utan i brist på beslutsamhet och mod att göra bruk av det utan någon annans ledning. Sapere aude! Ha mod att göra bruk av ditt eget förstånd! lyder alltså upplysningens valspråk.”

Efter att ha avslutat "Kritik av det rena förnuftet" började Kant att ta till orda i en bredare offentlighet. Denna volym innehåller fyra småskrifter som publicerades i "Berlinische Monatsschrift" 1784–86, ett organ för den tyska upplysningsrörelsen. Den mest kända av dessa är ”Svar på frågan: Vad är upplysning?”. ”Idé till en allmän historia med världsmedborgerligt syfte” presenterar nio teser om människosläktets bestämmelse och skulle också förbli Kants viktigaste historiefilosofiska skrift. I ”Den mänskliga historiens förmodade början” skildrar han hur människan med förnuftets hjälp frigör sig från naturen och påbörjar den utveckling som har ett världsmedborgerligt tillstånd som sitt yttersta mål. ”Vad innebär det att orientera sig i täkandet?” preciserar närmare innebörden av upplysningens maxim – ”att tänka själv” – i en betraktelse över förhållandet mellan tro och vetande. Boken inleds med ett utdrag från den tyske filosofen Ernst Cassirers bok om Kant.89:T5c5,Prolegomena kom ut två år efter Kritik av det rena förnuftet. Kant söker här sammanfatta tankegångarna i sitt huvudverk och tillrättavisa några av de missförstånd som det gav upphov till. Boken är uppbyggd kring frågor som är implicita i Kritiken men som nu ställs explicit: Vad är förutsättningarna för att erfarenhet skall vara möjlig? Hur är matematik och naturvetenskap möjliga? Kan det finns en vetenskaplig metafysik? Den s k kritiska idealismen som Kant utarbetade ger svaret på dessa frågor. En grundläggande tanke får följande formulering i Prolegomena: "Ting är givna för oss såsom utanför oss befintliga föremål för våra sinnen, men vad de må vara i sig själva vet vi ingenting om, utan vi är bara bekanta med deras framträdelser, dvs de föreställningar som de åstadkommer i oss i det att de påverkar våra sinnen". Att tro att man kan ha kunskap om "tinget i sig" är det misstag som en äldre metafysik gjorde sig skyldig till. En metafysik som gör anspråk på vetenskaplighet måste vara erfarenhetens metafysik. Det är mot bakgrund av dessa tankar som man ska förstå bokens fullständiga titel, som i original lyder: Prolegomena zu einen jeden künftigen Metaphysik, die als Wissenshaft wird auftreten können. Det blir på svenska; Inledande anmärkningar till varje framtida metafysik som skall kunna uppträda som vetenskap. Prolegomena har varit inkörsporten till Kants filosofi för generationer av filosofer.8a:T445,[T]he present groundwork is nothing more than the identification and vindication of the supreme principle of morality.'

In the Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), Immanuel Kant makes clear his two central intentions: first, to uncover the principle that underpins morality, and secondly to defend its applicability to human beings. The result is one of the most significant texts in the history of ethics, and a masterpiece of Enlightenment thinking. Kant argues that moral law tells us to act only in ways that others could also act, thereby treating them as ends in themselves and not merely as means. Kant contends that despite apparent threats to our freedom from science, and to ethics from our self-interest, we can nonetheless take ourselves to be free rational agents, who as such have a motivation to act on this moral law, and thus the ability to act as moral beings.

One of the most studied works of moral philosophy, this new translation by Robert Stern, Joe Saunders, and Christopher Bennett illuminates this famous text for modern readers.8b:Td29,Human reason, in one sphere of its cognition, is called upon to consider questions, which it cannot decline, as they are presented by its own nature, but which it cannot answer, as they transcend every faculty of the mind. It falls into this difficulty without any fault of its own. It begins with principles, which cannot be dispensed with in the field of experience, and the truth and sufficiency of which are, at the same time, insured by experience. With these principles it rises, in obedience to the laws of its own nature, to ever higher and more remote conditions. But it quickly discovers that, in this way, its labours must remain ever incomplete, because new questions never cease to present themselves; and thus it finds itself compelled to have recourse to principles which transcend the region of experience, while they are regarded by common sense without distrust. It thus falls into confusion and contradictions, from which it conjectures the presence of latent errors, which, however, it is unable to discover, because the principles it employs, transcending the limits of experience, cannot be tested by that criterion. The arena of these endless contests is called Metaphysic. Time was, when she was the queen of all the sciences; and, if we take the will for the deed, she certainly deserves, so far as regards the high importance of her object-matter, this title of honour. Now, it is the fashion of the time to heap contempt and scorn upon her; and the matron mourns, forlorn and forsaken, like Hecuba: Modo maxima rerum, Tot generis, natisque potens... Nunc trahor exul, inops. -Ovid, Metamorphoses. xiii At first, her government, under the administration of the dogmatists, was an absolute despotism. But, as the legislative continued to show traces of the ancient barbaric rule, her empire gradually broke up, and intestine wars introduced the reign of anarchy; while the sceptics, like nomadic tribes, who hate a permanent habitation and settled mode of living, attacked from time to time those who had organized themselves into civil communities. But their number was, very happily, small; and thus they could not entirely put a stop to the exertions of those who persisted in raising new edifices, although on no settled or uniform plan. In recent times the hope dawned upon us of seeing those disputes settled, and the legitimacy of her claims established by a kind of physiology of the human understanding-that of the celebrated Locke. But it was found that-although it was affirmed that this so-called queen could not refer her descent to any higher source than that of common experience, a circumstance which necessarily brought suspicion on her claims-as this genealogy was incorrect, she persisted in the advancement of her claims to sovereignty. Thus metaphysics necessarily fell back into the antiquated and rotten constitution of dogmatism, and again became obnoxious to the contempt from which efforts had been made to save it. At present, as all methods, according to the general persuasion, have been tried in vain, there reigns nought but weariness and complete indifferentism-the mother of chaos and night in the scientific world, but at the same time the source of, or at least the prelude to, the re-creation and reinstallation of a science, when it has fallen into confusion, obscurity, and disuse from ill directed effort.3c:["$","$L7d",null,{"state":{"mutations":[],"queries":[{"dehydratedAt":1793420910142,"state":{"data":{"pages":[{"requestId":"9be840bd-20a4-4165-af0c-8eb6a4cbcd58","total":{"value":80,"relation":"eq"},"rows":[{"entityType":"book","isbn":"9789178194858","id":505722,"score":2,"position":0,"book":{"id":505722,"isbn":"9789178194858","created":"2021-06-23T08:05:01.000Z","title":"Axplock ur idéhistorien 2, Kant till Loytard","description":"Kant, Svaret på frågan: Vad är upplysningen? 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This is the first volume of the first ever comprehensive edition of the works of Immanuel Kant in English translation. The eleven essays in this volume constitute Kant’s theoretical, pre-critical philosophical writings from 1755 to 1770. Several of these pieces have never been translated into English before; others have long been unavailable in English. We can trace in these works the development of Kant’s thought to the eventual emergence in 1770 of the two chief tenets of his mature philosophy: the subjectivity of space and time, and the phenomena-noumena distinction. The volume has been furnished with substantial editorial apparatus, including a general introduction to the main themes of Kant’s early thought, introduction to the individual works and résumés of their contents, linguistic and factual notes, bibliographies, a glossary of key terms, and biographical-bibliographical sketches of persons mentioned by Kant.

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Published in 1785, the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals is one of the most powerful texts in the history of ethical thought. In this book, Immanuel Kant formulates and justifies a supreme principle of morality that issues universal and unconditional moral commands. These commands receive their normative force from the fact that rational agents autonomously impose the moral law upon themselves. As such, they are laws of freedom. This volume contains the first facing-page German-English edition of Kant's Groundwork. It presents an authentic edition of the German text and a carefully revised version of Mary Gregor's acclaimed English translation, as well as editorial notes and a full bilingual index. It will be the edition of choice for any student or scholar who is not content with reading this central contribution to modern moral philosophy through the veil of English translation.

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Now available for the first time in English, this critical translation of Metaphysica draws from the original seven Latin editions, the Academy edition of Kant, and Georg Friedrich Meier’s 18th-century German translation. To assist and support the reading of this crucial text, the translation features:

* historical and philosophical introductions and sketches
* extensive glossaries and notes
* clear reproductions of Kant’s elucidations and handwritten notes
* Eberhard’s insertions in the 1783 German edition

Used as a philosophical instruction for thinkers such as Kant, Mendelssohn, Abbt, Herder, and Maimon, Metaphysica is arguably one of philosophy’s most influential texts. Equipped with supportive and illuminating introductory material, this clear and lucid translation presents scholars of Kant, German philosophy and the history of philosophy with an indispensable resource.

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Det är också i denna skrift som Kant för första gången formulerar det kategoriska imperativet: »Handla enligt den maxim som tillika kan göra sig själv till allmän lag».

I den samtida etiska och moralfilosofiska diskussionen intar Grundläggning av sedernas metafysik en central ställning.","htmlDescription":null,"pages":94,"language":"swe","depth":5,"height":133,"width":210,"weight":125,"edition":"1","publishDate":"1997-01-01","authorNames":"Immanuel Kant","publisherName":"Bokförlaget Daidalos","format":"BC","category":115,"image":"https://book-info.studentapan.live/image/9789171730688-grundlaeggning-av-sedernas-metafysik.jpg","highResImage":"https://book-info.studentapan.live/image/9789171730688-grundlaeggning-av-sedernas-metafysik.jpg/org","imageFile":"9789171730688","isRemoved":null,"views":25,"editionGroupId":162319,"editionGroupState":"UNPUBLISHED","adsCount":1,"minPrice":189,"source":"book-info-service","minNewPrice":150,"varugruppCode":null,"isExercise":false,"inventory":null,"sellAsDigital":false,"editionGroupSearchEnabled":false}},{"entityType":"book","isbn":"9781107092716","id":119643,"score":2,"position":14,"book":{"id":119643,"isbn":"9781107092716","created":"2015-12-21T23:00:00.000Z","title":"Kant: Critique of Practical Reason","description":"The Critique of Practical Reason is the second of Kant's three Critiques, one of his three major treatises on moral theory, and a seminal text in the history of moral philosophy. 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